La Garde Ecossaise Historical Fiction and Early Modern Studies Newsletter

Welcome

A warm welcome to the La Garde Ecossaise Historical Fiction newsletter. This is your fortnightly update on the novel series and early modern studies. 

New Releases from La Garde Ecossaise

Audio Guide Chapter 4 French Military Service.

Audio Guide Chapter 5 Iberian Wine Trade.

Please subscribe to the audio guide on Spotify, Apple Podcasts and YouTube.

Quote

I hope the reader will find some inspiration within these pages as it recounts the adventures and heroic tales of six men within Louis XIVs Scottish guard, La Garde Ecossaise. La Garde Ecossaise is an ancient regiment founded in the Middle Ages and continues to this day [1716]. The Garde is an enduring symbol of the blessed military alliance and friendship between Scotland and France’.

 p. 3-4 La Garde Ecossaise Book 1.

Early Modern Digest

17^th century archaeological discoveries at Bishop Auckland Palace. You can catch up on the Digging for Britain episode on BBC iPlayer.  https://durhammagazine.co.uk/durham-history/regime-change-and-archaeology-the-17th-century-finds-at-auckland-palace-on-bbc-two/034629/#google_vignette

The return of a 17^th century fashion craze? https://www.thetimes.com/life-style/luxury/article/the-surprising-history-of-the-pimple-patch-craze-times-luxury-rnvvtskfh

Foster care in the 17^th century https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/seventeenth-century-fostering-power

Priceless archaeological discoveries dating back to the 16^th and 17^th centuries found in Poland. https://www.newsweek.com/priceless-treasure-found-metal-detectors-1984046

Rembrandt’s painting of the ‘Orient’ (which he never visited as he was based the United Provinces). Some food for thought here. https://brooklynrail.org/2021/02/artseen/Rembrandts-Orient-West-Meets-East-in-Dutch-Art-of-the-Seventeenth-Century/

Do You Know?

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) resulted in 8 million deaths throughout Europe. Only World War 1 and World War 2 have a larger death toll.

Feature Article

Six Foundations that help us understand the Early Modern European World.

Part 1 Humanism, Renaissance and Dynastic Unions

Before we take a deep dive into specific aspects of early modern studies that are reflected in the novel we should take a moment to step back and reflect upon what I call ‘The foundations of the early modern European world’.

These are broad and far-reaching events, innovations, and ideas that spread throughout Europe over two centuries and define the parameters of early modern Europe and its expansionism abroad.

As always, I will put references in the footnotes of the article should you wish to explore any of these topics further.

Many of these subjects should be viewed on multiple levels; international, national and intranational. Indeed, taken together they show a complex and fascinating set of events, innovations and ideas. 

This list is far from exhaustive, and some scholars and students may disagree with some of the choices here. You are very welcome to leave a comment at the bottom of this post if you are online or contact me directly to discuss this further. You can do so at: [email protected]

Humanism: The Classics and Italian Intellectual Approaches Capture the European Imagination  

What is Humanism? 

Humanism is the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts to better understand the human condition and human societies. These classical texts were to be approached and closely analysed as documents of their time. This approach was used to construct arguments and discussions around debatable subjects in relation to politics, law, philosophy and religion. Humanism was never a whole or complete philosophy but rather a patchwork of new and different approaches to original ancient texts which evolved over a period of a century or more.[1] 

This need for a greater understanding of the human condition through classical texts is arguably the most essential foundation for understanding the early modern European world. This development underpinned both the Renaissance and the Reformations that took place in the sixteenth centuries. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the study of classical texts continued to inform developments in science, philosophy and the arts.

Why was this approach different?  

Before this new approach to classical texts, ancient texts were annotated, and quotes were extracted based upon the need of the reader often distorting the meaning of the original text. Historian Chistopher Celenza puts it succinctly:

‘Now imagine, instead, that there was no translated version of the text and, more importantly, that there was no single standard edition of the Latin text. Instead there were only handwritten copies. Not only that: those copies of the Latin text that did exist and to which you had access were incomplete. And even when you had before you two copies of what was, arguably, the ‘same’ text, the copies diverged in certain respects. You might encounter certain passages that showed different word ordering, that manifested variant spellings and that were written in markedly different handwriting’.[2]

Petrarch broke new ground in believing that these texts should be analysed and appreciated as much as possible in their original form and context. Classical texts were historical documents to be analysed and appreciated on their own terms not at the discretion and tastes of the reader.[3]

Petrarch: Outsider to Trend Setter

However, although retrospectively Petrarch is seen as an instrumental figure in the birth of humanism at the time he was very much an outsider. Although he had studied law at the University of Montpelier and civil law at the University of Bologna he rejected a professorship at the University of Florence. He was dependent upon wealthy patrons from the urban and clerical elite. His ideas gained traction when they were adopted by the urban intellectuals of the city of Florence.

It was in Florence that a tight knit network of civil servants adopted his approach to classical texts. Surrounded by Italian states that were becoming ruled by single figures, powerful families and oligarchs, the political elites of Florence were anxious to preserve their constitution and looked towards classical scholars for guidance. Petrarch’s ideas were adopted and developed by several figures in the Florentine elite including Salutati, Manetti and de Niccoli. These ideas and approaches spread to the elites of other Italian states and by the mid-1450s, the Vatican endorsed humanist approaches and founded a substantial library with many humanist scholars employed within the Papal See.[4]

You are a student in 1500, and you want to rebel against your university and its statutes. Choose Humanism! 

The emergence of humanism as a major force coincided with the foundation of many universities throughout Europe by papal bull and royal edict in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.[5] Humanism thrived due to increased investment and interest in universities as well as the academic networks that developed by the sharing of knowledge and ideas through handwritten correspondence, publications and travel.

A tight network of universities and academics underpinned the development of humanism and thus many of the philosophical, political, religious, scientific and cultural innovations of early modern Europe. Many advocates of humanism had spent time in Italy as students and were impressed with the new approach to classical texts, analysis, and discussion. They took this fresh approach to classical texts home and taught at universities in their respective countries including, France, the Low Countries, Germany, England and Spain.[6]  

 What have the Humanists ever done for us? 

A group of scholars, intellectuals and academics discussing classical texts - what’s the big deal? 

The critical approaches to the classical texts by Humanists were applied to other disciplines such as Theology, Law, History and Politics. It transformed the way Europeans approached and analysed written texts. Humanists were actively employed in top positions in government as civil servants, diplomats and government advisers due to their knowledge and linguistic skills. 

Apart from Petrarch here are some Humanists you need to know:

Niccolò Machiavelli

This is where the English language term ‘Machiavellianism’ comes from which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as ‘A follower of Machiavelli; a person who adopts the principles recommended, or supposed to have been recommended by Machiavelli’ or the more commonly known meaning today ‘a person who practices expediency in preference to morality, an intriguer or schemer’.[7]

Machiavelli is known for his two works The Prince and Discourses on Livy which drew upon classical texts. The Prince reflects on the realities of being a ruler and although written for the Medici family the narrative is structured as an appeal to a singular prince to rule bravely and wisely. Machiavelli states that rulers can be cruel and ruthless as human nature is drawn to power. However, if this aggression is for the security of the state cruelty and aggression is permissible.

It is important to recognise the context within which these books were written as the city of Florence was now being ruled by the powerful Medici family and there were calls to expel foreign armed forces from Italy.[8] 

Desiderius Erasmus

Known to university students because his name is given to the current student exchange scheme between European universities, amongst scholars he is known as ‘The Prince of the Humanities’ because his work and influence was and still is European wide. His work is characterised by a reflection on the inner self rather than outward display through ceremonies and wealth. As such his work had a major impact on the emergence of the Protestant Reformation. Erasmus remained a Catholic despite having many questions about the Catholic Church and he rejected the Protestant Reformation.

Jonathan Arnold states ‘For Erasmus, Christian humanism meant being able to delight in the skill and eloquence of classical pagan authors, as well as using their tools to interpret the Bible, without being seduced by their Pagan beliefs’.

For Erasmus, reading the Bible was the best way to connect with God and this close reading of the Bible was to become a central feature of the Protestant faith.[9] 

Thomas More

Thomas More was a friend to both Erasmus and King Henry VIII who was introduced to the new approach of reading the classics at Oxford University by a group leading humanist scholars. After a period of training as a lawyer, More worked for the Mercers Company and soon gained an excellent reputation. He then entered into politics and was involved in trade negotiations with the Low Counties, after which he returned to England to write his most famous work Utopia in which he envisages a better society and an idealised Christian Commonwealth. Thomas More was a devout Catholic and refused to acknowledge Henry VIII’s divorce of Katherine of Aragon and his marriage to Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII imprisoned Thomas More in the Tower of London and More was executed for treason on 6 July 1535. [10] His life has been immortalised on screen through the film ‘A Man for All Seasons.’

All these men were known as men of letters and polymaths meaning they wrote across and within many different subject areas, including literature, satire, philosophy politics and law. 

The Renaissance: Architecture, Art and Sculpture

The term ‘Renaissance’ can encompass a wide range of artistic, performative, literary and musical creations in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that were inspired by ancient Greece and Rome. ‘Inspired’ is the best term to use as many of these works were also shaped by the individual preoccupations of the artist, writer, and performer as well as their patrons who were often driven by national, regional and local concerns at the time. 

For illustration, we will focus our attention on architecture, art and sculpture in Renaissance Italy, France and Scotland. 

Renaissance Italy c.1430-1527

The crucible of the Renaissance whose fascination with ancient Rome stemmed from the humanists. This fascination with the Roman past spilled over into architecture, art and sculpture in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

For example, the Duomo Cupola dome that dominates Florence’s skyline was constructed through knowledge of Greek and Roman building techniques taken from classical sources.[11] 

One of the defining features of Italian Renaissance art is its emphasis on nature, man (or woman) and the reality of the human body. Fine and detailed portrayals of the human body through art was visually exploring the human condition. Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus dating from 1480s shows how humanism and portraiture were intertwined with each other during this period. It portrays the Roman goddess Venus through the eyes of the humanist Angelo Politziano and the artist Sandro Botticelli. Botticelli was inspired by Politziano’s verses in the Stanze.[12] 

This preoccupation with the classical world also produced some of the greatest works of sculpture. Donatello, the giant of Renaissance sculpture consistently drew inspiration from the classical world. Most notably this is seen in his sculpture of St Mark where St Mark resembles a Roman senator carrying books or paper. As art historian Francis Ames-Lewis states ‘The statue is justly praised for its classicism, its humanity, its natural pose and its realistically intense expression’. [13]  

Renaissance France c.1483-1610

The end of the Hundred Years War brought a period of peace to France and the nobility wanted to build chateaux that would display wealth and opulence. Francis I and those who had travelled to Italy either for education, diplomacy or war were keen to bring the classical influence to France. 

King Francis I commissioned the design and building of Chateau Chambord which was built using designs of Italian origin. It was the first of its kind in France.  As R.J Knecht continues:

 ‘it is divided into four parts by a Greek cross, of which the arms lead from entrances to a double spiral staircase in the middle. This arrangement leaves a square in each corner subdivided into a lodging of three rooms. The origin of this plan, which is repeated on each of three storeys, is Italian. Except for the spiral staircase, it recalls the plan of the villa built by Giuliano da Sangallo at Poggio a Caiano, near Florence, in the 1480s. This architect had a pupil, Domenico da Cortona, who worked in France during Francis’s reign. He was paid for wooden models of various buildings, including Chambord, and was also commissioned to build a new town hall in Paris. So he may have been the architect of Chambord, but architectural historians doubt if he had the necessary genius. Some believe that Chambord was inspired by Leonardo da Vinci, although he died in 1519 before the building had actually got under way’.[14]  

In France the classics heavily inspired the ‘Fontainebleau school’ of portraiture and its fascination with ruins. These artists were inspired by Italian art and the literature of the humanists. A perfect example is a drawing done for Jean de Lorraine by the artist Rosso. In the centre of the drawing is a stanza written by Petrarch in his verse ‘Standing alone one day by the window’.[15]

The French king Francois I would request classically inspired statues be bought for the French court via agents with links to Italy. Including works depicting Mercury, Hercules and a statue of Nature done by sculptor Niccolo Tribolo.[16]

Renaissance Scotland

The Renaissance in Scotland is very different from its counterparts in Europe as it leaned more towards French influence and national symbols than Italian classical approaches.[17] 

However, that is not to say that classical approaches cannot be seen in Scotland’s architecture. The best example is Stirling Castle, especially its Great Hall and Royal Apartments which show the opulence on display during the reigns of King James IV and V. As Jane Dawson has explained ‘Despite its defensive appearance, the triple portal echoed the classical motif of a Roman triumphal arch. Throughout the royal works, the masons freely used the latest fashions from Italy and France’.18]  

Again, to see Renaissance art in Scotland we have to look towards Stirling Castle and in particular the ceilings, their colours and carvings which are very much reflective of the reign of King James V and influenced by trends in France.[19]

The statue of King James V at the North-East corner of palace presents the king with a scroll in one hand and a sword in the other showing that he is a man of humanist learning as well as a defender of the realm. This perfectly encapsulates King James IV and King James V turning one of Scotland’s defensive fortresses into a Renaissance palace.[20] 

Dynastic Unions and Territorial Expansion

One significant feature of the early modern period is what historians call ‘composite monarchies’ whereby one ruler or monarch governs multiple territories and nations each with their own histories, laws, political traditions and diverse populations. At times this could make governing and ruling these territories extremely difficult, as often, the monarch had to juggle conflicting interests and priorities to keep the peace. This became far more difficult as Europe began to fracture into confessional divisions between Catholicism and various forms of Protestantism. In addition, often the monarch was absent from territories over which they were sovereign leaving their governance in the hands of the nobility in these areas. Historians called these monarchs ‘absentee monarchs.’ The significance of these composite monarchs cannot be overstated. The monarch could not exercise full control over their territories and at times of trouble and rebellion it was very difficult for the monarch to regain control. This lack of control resulted in major religious changes, wars, and rebellions which would have far reaching consequences not only for the territories affected but for Europe as a whole.  These composite monarchies included the Hapsburgs who governed the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands and Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and the Stuarts who governed the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland between 1603 and 1707.[21]

Hapsburgs: The Holy Roman Empire

Emperor Charles V inherited extensive lands in Europe through dynastic marriages and family misfortunes that made him the sovereign ruler over Spain, the Netherlands (Dutch Netherlands and Belgium today) and Germany, Austria and parts of Italy.

Through his grandfather Maximillian I, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire he was put forward as the next Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1519 he came into possession of the Hapsburg lands. Charles’s influence stretched through parts of Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Moravia.[22]  

Through his father Philip he inherited the Burgundian lands and the Netherlands (modern day Belgium, Dutch Netherlands and Luxembourg), Charles Vs grandmother and wife of Maximillian I was Mary of Burgundy who was the daughter of Charles the Bold.[23]

Through his mother Joanna Charles inherited the monarchy of the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile and became known as King Carlos I of Spain. These crowns and the kingdom of Spain had emerged after the marriage of his grandparents Ferdinand and Isabella. Charles also inherited these titles on the death of Ferdinand in 1516 was firmly established as king in 1522. The Spanish kingdom encompassed not only Spain but its overseas territories in the Americas as well as islands off the coast of Africa and in Italian waters such as Sardinia and Sicily. The Spanish Crown’s influence also extended to into the Italian mainland especially the Kingdom of Naples. [24]

For a part of his reign between 1519 and the 1540s Charles lived in Spain and left the governance of the Holy Roman Empire in the hands of the princes and nobles expecting loyalty. He had promised not to rule the Holy Roman Empire as a foreign prince but as a German emperor fully respectful of political institutions and customs. He appointed his brother Ferdinand as regent to govern on his behalf while he was absent from the Empire. However, it was in a large part due to this ‘absentee monarchy’ that political institutions and sections of the elite of the Holy Roman Empire started working independently of the Emperor. Charles V installed his brother Archduke Ferdinand in Austria but Charles’s ability to direct affairs from Spain was hampered by poor communications. In Charles’s absence the Protestant Reformation emerged from Saxony and spread quickly throughout Germany. Only Bavaria retained its loyalty to the Emperor and the Catholic faith throughout. After the Protestant Reformation the Holy Roman Empire was confessionally divided as the Emperor himself retained loyalty to the Catholic faith whilst some of his subjects had converted to Protestantism. The Protestant Reformation and the absentee monarchy had weakened Hapsburg authority within the Empire and even though Charles V had returned in the 1540s and tried to bring his subjects back into the Catholic faith and restore the authority of the Hapsburgs and the unity of the Empire, he ultimately failed. It was decided that the Austrian Hapsburgs would inherit the Holy Roman Imperial Crown, and the crown was passed down this line of succession until the end of the old empire in 1806.[25]  

The Hapsburgs: Spain

Why was Charles V happy for the nobles and princes of the Holy Roman Empire to govern in his absence? 

The truth is that the Spanish saw King Carlos I as an absentee monarch too as Carlos I spent considerable amounts of time away from Spain whilst attending to his other territories as J.H. Elliot explains:  

‘Of his nearly forty years as King he spent under just sixteen in Spain itself. These sixteen years were made up of one long stay of seven years, and five shorter visits:

September 1517 to May 1520

July 1522 to July 1529

April 1533 to April 1535

December 1536 to Spring 1538

July 1538 to November 1539

November 1541 to May 1543

After 1543 he was not seen in Spain until September 1556’.[26]

How did he manage to effectively govern Spain given he was largely absent from the country? 

Carlos I learned to be very careful with his words and actions especially after his initial stay in the country where he had come with a Flemish retinue which sought out and retained all the top positions at court. This increased Spanish resentment against foreigners. Carlos gradually increased the numbers of Spaniards at court and emphasised that Spain was the foundation of his power and authority. This was not just flattery but the truth as Spain was becoming the foremost global power due to its maritime supremacy and conquests in the Americas. He promoted himself as a powerful Christian King and Emperor who could protect Christendom from the Turks. For a significant period of his absence, he left the government of Spain in the very capable hands of Franciso Los Cobos which ensured continuity and stability.  

Yet the real secret to his success was his approach towards his territories. Carlos I never sought to unify his territories or mould one territory into the image of another. He fully respected the laws, liberties, political traditions and structures of each territory. He accepted there were no shortcuts in governing such disparate kingdoms, so Carlos V was very much an itinerant king and emperor.[27]

The Stuarts and the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland 1603-1707

With the death of Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1603 her successor, James I of Britain and Ireland inherited four very distinct nations, each with their own histories, customs and laws. King James I who was already King of Scotland had inherited the Crowns of England, Ireland and the Principality of Wales through his mother’s bloodline. James I’s mother Mary Queen of Scots was a cousin of Elizabeth I. From the Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland in 1603 until the Act of Union 1707 the Stuart monarchy grappled with the challenges of ruling multiple kingdoms from London.[28]

Scotland was run by an absentee monarchy with Scotland’s Parliament and Scotland’s Privy Council lacking direct oversight from the monarch who was now in London. Scotland had a full sovereign parliament and was a fully independent and self-governing country with its own laws and constitution that had evolved separately from England, Wales and Ireland due to its governance by the Stuarts or Stewarts dynasty, since 1371. England at the time of James I’s succession also had its own parliament which was based at Westminster and its own Privy Council based in London. There were experiments to draw the government of England out of London during the early modern period but attempts to establish a Council of the North largely failed. Wales, absorbed by the Crown of England was governed by Westminster but remained culturally distinct from its neighbour. Welsh was still the dominant language and had its own landed elite which intermarried.  Ireland was also distinct from England and was shaped by its own history, customs, law and culture. Ireland had its own Privy Council and Parliament which sat in Dublin. At this time all 32 counties of Ireland were represented in the Parliament at Dublin. Most people spoke Irish and Ireland had its own landed elite which derived its privileges from the Crown.[29]

Overall, the Stuarts ruled four very different nations which, at times, had conflicting interests and priorities. The Stuart monarchs had to handle these differences with care to keep these disparate kingdoms united together under the Crown. Most Stuart monarchs managed to do so with the exception of Charles I whose policies upset this delicate balance, thereby plunging the three Stuart Kingdoms into civil war by 1642.  

When we briefly compare King Charles I with King Carlos I/Emperor Charles V we can see notable differences in the way they treated their territories. King Charles I remained in London, never visited Ireland and rarely visited Scotland the land of his birth. In contrast, as you already know, King Carlos I/Emperor Charles V moved between his different territories on a regular basis. We have also learned that King Carlos I/Emperor Charles V respected the laws, liberties and diverse political institutions and traditions in his territories. In addition, he even sought to build bridges with those of differing religious outlooks. In contrast, King Charles I sought to bring his Scottish kingdom closer to the English kingdom in terms of religious worship and liturgy. Furthermore, he did this whilst ignoring legitimate concerns expressed through petitions (known as supplications) from a significant section of the Scottish population. As frustrations grew, instead of building bridges, King Charles I repeatedly ignored these petitions seeing them as a challenge to his authority. This further divided Scottish society plunging the country into civil war by 1639.[30]

What other ‘foundations’ of the early modern world can you think of? If you are reading this newsletter on the web please leave a comment below or you can email me at [email protected]

[1] Ronald G Witt, ‘The Humanist Movement’  Thomas A Brady, Heiko A. Oberman and James D. Tracey eds., Handbook of European History 1400-1600 (Leiden, 1995) 93; Charles G. Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe (London, 2006) 9-12, 14-15, 18-19.

[2] Christopher S Celenza, Petrarch : Everywhere a Wanderer (London, 2017) 45

[3] Nauert, Humanism in Renaissance Europe 18-20 ; Celenza, Petrarch : Everywhere a Wanderer 46.

[4] Nauert, Humanism in Renaissance Europe 25-29, 37 ; Celenza, Petrarch : Everywhere a Wanderer 76, 84; Victoria Kirkham and Armando Maggi, Petrarch: A Critical Guide to the Complete Works (Chicago, 2009) xv-xxii; Lauro Martines,   The Social World of Florentine Humanists 1390-1460 (Toronto, 2011 reprinted from Princeton edition, 1963) 105-108, 112-116, 131-137, 147-164, 176-190, 263-302; Mark Jurdjevic, Natasha Piano and John P MacCormick, Florentine Political Writings from Petrarch to Machiavelli (Philadelphia, 2019) 26-55 (Petrarch) 56-84 (Salutati).

[5] Italy; Perugia (1308), Treviso (1318), Pisa (1343), Florence (1349), Pavia (1361), Ferrara (1391), Turin (1405) Catania (1444). Spain ; Lérida (1300), Perpignan (1349), Huesca (1359), Barcelona (1450), Palma (1483). France; Avignon (1303), Cahors (1332), Grenoble (1339), Orange (1365), Aix (1409), Dole (1422), Poitiers (1431), Caen (1431/1432, 1437), Bordeaux (1441), Valence (1459). Germany, Bohemia and the Low Countries; Prague (1347-1348), Vienna (1365), Erfurt (1379, 1392), Heidelberg (1385), Cologne (1388), Wurzburg (1402), Leipsic (1409), Rostock (1419), Louvain (1435). Poland, Hungary, Sweden; Krakow (1364, 1397), Funfkirchen (1367), Buda (1389), Pressburg (1465-1467), Upsala (1477), Copenhagen (1478). Scotland; St Andrews (1413), Glasgow (1450). Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages Volume II, Part 1 (Oxford, 1895) v-viii.

[6] Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe 109-129; Witt, ‘The Humanist Movement’ 98-119.

[7] Oxford English Dictionary, ‘Machiavellianism’ https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=Machevelian accessed 28/01/25.

[8] Nicolai Rubenstien, ‘Italian Political Thought 1450-1530’ J.H. Burns ed., The Cambridge History of Political Thought 1450-1700 (Cambridge, 1991) 41-45.

[9] Jonathan Arnold, The Great Humanists: An Introduction (London, 2011) 103-104, 106-107.

[10] Arnold, The Great Humanists 175-177, 186.

[11] Francis Ames-Lewis ‘Art and Architecture in Italy and Beyond’ in Gordon Campbell ed., The Oxford History of the Renaissance (Oxford, 2023) 162.

[12] Thomas Martin ‘The nude figure in Renaissance Art’ in Babette Bohn and James M Saslow eds., A Companion to Renaissance and Baroque Art (Oxford, 2012)

[13] Ames-Lewis, ‘Art and Architecture in Italy’ 176-177; A Victor Coonin, Donatello and the Dawn of Renaissance Art 44.

[14]R J Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France (London, 2008) 188-189.

[15] Richard Cooper, Roman Antiquities in Renaissance France 1515-1565 (London, 2016) 232.

[16] Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France  196.

[17] Charles McKean, ‘Renaissance Architecture’ in Bob Harris and Alan R MacDonald eds., Scotland: The Making and Unmaking of the Nation c.1100-1707 (Dundee, 2007) 184-185.

[18] Jane A Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed 1488-1587 (Edinburgh, 2007) 79.

[19] Murdo MacDonald, The World of Scottish Art (London, 2021) Chapter 3 Loss and Reconstruction.

[20] Jamie Cameron and R.A. MacDonald, James V (Edinburgh, 2011). Picture Section (no page numbers).

[21] J.H. Elliot, ‘A Europe of Composite Monarchies’ Past and Present (1992) 48-71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/650851 Accessed 2/2/2025

[22] Richard MacKenney, Sixteenth Century Europe: Expansion and Conflict (London, 1993) 231-233; Glenn Richardson, Renaissance Monarchy: The Reigns of Henry VIII, Francis I and Charles V (London, 2002) 19.

[23] MacKenney, Sixteenth Century Europe 231; Richardson, Renaissance Monarchy 16.

[24] MacKenney, Sixteenth Century Europe 231; Richardson, Renaissance Monarchy 16-19; J H Elliot, Imperial Spain (London, 2022) 170.

[25] Volker Press, ‘The Hapsburg Lands: the Holy Roman Empire 1400-1555’ in Thomas A. Brady and Heiko A. Oberman and James D Tracy eds., Handbook of European History 1400-1600 Volume 1 (Leiden, 1994) 450-457; Jochim Whalley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire Volume 1 Maxmillian I to the Peace of Westphalia 1493-1648 (Oxford, 2012) 154-155, 160-163, 165-166.

[26] Elliot, Imperial Spain 213.

[27] Elliot,  Imperial Spain 188-217.

[28] David L Smith, A History of the Modern British Isles 1603-1707: The Double Crown (Oxford, 1998) 5.

[29] Smith, A History of the Modern British Isles 6-22.

[30] Martyn Bennett, The Civil Wars in Britain & Ireland 1638-1651 (Oxford, 1998) 27-31.